Buddhism and Science: Approaches to Mediumship

There are various ways in which Buddhism and Science intersect in their methods of inquiry. In a Frontiers Article titled, “Tibetan Monastics Reflect on Science and Buddhism: (I) The Basic Human Nature and (II) Subatomic Particles,” monks consider the nature and relationship between Buddhism, Western religions, philosophy, and science. They propose that Buddhism and science employ the same methodological approach to testing hypotheses. As is referenced by Jeffrey Hopkins, who shares, "Buddhist philosophy considers that both compounded or impermanent phenomena produced from causes are to be investigated.” While these similarities endure in theory, the actual integration of scientific inquiry and Tibetan practices proves complex and challenging due to the constraints imposed by traditional frameworks.

In cases of Tibetan ritual and observation, examples of this philosophical and scientific inquiry and tension are presented in studies such as the Tukdam study, conducted by Dylan Lott et al., where researchers hypothesized and explored the potential for brain activity persisting post-mortem using Electroencephalogram (EEG) and auditory brainstem responses (ABR) signals. Incorporating the Tibetan framework of death, this study encountered challenges like delayed access to subjects at the point of death because of their reluctance to disrupt the immediate process of Tukdam. Time poses a significant constraint in research, particularly concerning biological sampling, and minimizing the lingering effects of any extraneous variables that could influence data analysis. This is especially true in the contexts of observing the moment of death for Tibetan Buddhist practitioners. Hence, the research faces a tension between cultural sensitivity and accuracy in data sourcing which ultimately reduces science’s part in contextualizing death. For point of reference in the Tibetan Buddhist context, death and consciousness aligns itself with the experience of Tukdam and is not singularly limited to the mind. In fact, in the moment of death ('chi kha bar do), there is a psycho-somatic dissolution in which gradual loss of physical and motor functions, sensory perception, cognition, and emotions disintegrate from the five elements. The challenge for science lies in its ability to quantify or demonstrate this process. However, in attempting to do so, researchers risk conflicting with traditions and potentially diluting the embodied significance of the practice by imposing a specific framework upon it.

This section explores complex research methods on meditation and trance experience while connecting them to the potential applications of understanding the Nechun

g Oracle in trance states. It should be noted that each of these studies utilizes different forms of cognitive measures which will be further explained below. The hypotheses presented in this research are based on a range of studies introduced by researchers such as Antoine Lutz et al., Andrew B. Newberg et al., and Rebecca G. Rogerson et al. I need to clarify that while I compare research that has already been conducted on the experience of trance, these comparisons do not provide definitive outcomes that encompass the entirety of the trance process. I am dissecting elements of the trance experience and endeavoring to understand it from a cognitive standpoint.

I first reference Antoine Lutz and Richard Davidson’s research titled, “Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation” on neuroplasticity and meditation as a baseline for discussing the general practice of mediumship in the Tibetan Buddhist context. As referenced earlier on, a majority of Oracles who move forward with their role as mediums are required to partake in a meditation retreat in order to cleanse the channels. One way to conceptualize the impacts of this practice on the brain is to observe how meditation in practice impacts the brain. Lutz’s work discusses research on the effects of meditation on the brain, particularly focusing on long-term practitioners. This work highlights the involvement of the Dalai Lama in promoting and facilitating this research, particularly among Tibetan Buddhist monks. Two main types of meditation, Focused Attention (FA) and Open Monitoring (OM) are examined, revealing neuroplastic changes in brain structure and function. Using fMRI researchers compared brain activity between experts and novices during FA meditation, finding increased activation in brain regions associated with monitoring and attention in both groups. Interestingly, expert meditators showed an inverted U-shaped curve in activation levels in several brain areas, suggesting a peak of activation with extensive practice. Expert meditators exhibited less activation in the amygdala in response to emotional sounds, indicating reduced emotional reactivity. 

Figure 7, section (a), displays this reference to the amygdala, which is primarily responsible for processing emotions, especially fear and aggression, as well as regulating emotional responses and memories. Davidson’s research informs us of two main meditation practices regarding FA and OM meditation. For oracles, specifically like the Nechung, the importance of meditation for trance states is paramount to aid in the clearing of one of the five vital energies, also known as the wind channel (rLung). If, say, the Nechung Oracle began to enter a trance, this research would further explore how the already trained meditative mind is primed to experience trance. One hypothesis to consider is looking at how the emotional processing site of the brain– in this case the amygdala– reacts in response to the pre, current, and post states of trance, in which the brain may see a spike in activation and immediately reduce during trance if a trance state is comparable to mediative conditions on the brain. This hypothesis is based in part on the interview I conducted with Kuten la who shared, 

“Right as it begins to occur, it is almost like the time when I took a plane to Ladakh and it suddenly dropped, causing that sudden feeling of fear. In the same way, the occurrence of fear and anxiety begin to show up in my mind and body, and in an instant, the state of trance occurs. I am unable to recall anything that happens during the entire event”  

The relationship between emotional processing and mediation in these events presents an opportunity for researchers to observe how the already meditative mind processes and undergoes stressors like trance when a Deity enters the body. Another interesting point of research– which should be considered in future applications– is the state of memory, briefly mentioned by the Oracle early on. Since this trance state is presented as an uncontrollable and perhaps a momentary state of anterograde amnesia the relationship between this emotional processing and neuroplasticity, paired with memory, presents an interesting theory on how this trance state may impact the brain.

In another research article published by Rebecca G. Rogerson et al., researchers observed a trance process, known cognitively as altered states of consciousness (ASC), in a single experienced practicing Sangoma. This Sangoma, aged 42 years and possessing over 20 years of dance experience, underwent fMRI scanning. Functional and anatomical images were acquired using a 3T Siemens Tim Trio MRI scanner with a 32-channel head coil. The participant listened to trance-inducing music in the scanner and was asked to rate the success of inducing trance during different music blocks. The data was analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM), and brain regions associated with trance perception were identified. The auditory, visual, parietal, and orbitofrontal cortex showed increased blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signals during high trance perception compared to low perception. For the subject, physical sensations, which included tingling fingers, nausea, and a hyper-awareness of light, odor, and sound, were active as she entered a trance. This Sangoma, in her state of trance, presented similar physiological responses as the Kuten la shared with me in an interview below. 

Question: "What symptoms do you experience before and during your trance state, and how do they change over time? Have you noticed any specific instances where your trance state is influenced in any way?"

Kuten la: "For instance, depending on the source of the request, such as the Ganden Podrang or the Kashag, different symptoms may manifest. About two days before the trance is requested, I often start to notice or feel certain sensations. On the day of the trance, the music plays, and  I begin to perceive everyone in the room. At a certain point, the music seems to drift away and gradually fades. Around the same time, I start to experience a tingling sensation, like pins and needles, starting in my hands and then spreading to my feet. I also become more aware of my heartbeat, and as the music fades further, I start to feel more assured."

These findings and shared experience among practitioners suggest that trance perception is associated with modulation of brain activity in specific regions, providing insights into the neural correlates of trance states. Furthermore, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), in particular, showed the largest difference in BOLD signals between high and low trance perception (see figure 8). The OFC is particularly important in this research and its applications to trance states because the OFC is an area that is activated in the Default Mode Network (DMN). At the heightened points of trance, the Sangoma experienced a negative activation in the DMN, which Rogerson hypothesized could result from reciprocal inhibition from the DMN and prefrontal cortex aid in an effort to maintain Ordinary States of Consciousness (OSCs). In contrast, this inhibition would indicate an altered state of consciousness (ASCs), which includes but is not limited to shamanic trance. 

While the DMN is typically associated with functions in the resting state and the amygdala tends to be active in arousal states, the altered neuroplasticity of the amygdala being inactive during meditation could present functional connectivity between the amygdala and the default mode network (DMN). If there is a negative activation correlation between the amygdala and the DMN during states of trance, one could suggest trance to be an overall inhibitory process of the brain.

The final research references regarding observations on the neural correlates of meditation and trance includes two studies published by Andrew Newburg et al., titled "The Measurement of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow during the Complex Cognitive Task of Meditation: A Preliminary SPECT Study and “The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during glossolalia: A preliminary SPECT study.” These two studies utilize single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) to measure changes in the cortical regions of the brain, specifically the Frontal Lobe. This region is responsible for various cognitive functions, including executive functions such as decision-making, planning, and problem-solving. It also plays a crucial role in motor function, including voluntary movement and coordination. Additionally, the frontal lobe is involved in higher cognitive functions like attention, concentration, and working memory. Language production and comprehension are also attributed to this region of the brain. 

In the first study conducted by Newburg, researchers observed the regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) during meditation. Eight experienced Tibetan Buddhist meditators participated, focusing on a visualized image during their practice. SPECT scans were conducted at baseline and during meditation and found  significantly increased rCBF in various brain regions, including the frontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, and thalamus, during meditation compared to baseline.The study hypothesized and discovered an increased activity in the frontal lobe, potentially reflecting focused concentration, and identified a negative correlation between frontal and parietal lobes activity, thus, potentially indicating an altered sense of space during meditation.

The second study discusses glossolalia, also known as "speaking in tongues," as a religious phenomenon characterized by speaking in an incomprehensible language that practitioners perceive to have personal meaning. It explores previous research suggesting that glossolalia may not be related to psychopathology but rather to abnormal temporal lobe activity. While this is a research review on a religious phenomenon in the Pentecostal tradition, it is important to note that I am not directly connecting trance states and glossolalia. Rather, I am exploring the volitional and non-volitional action conditions in the study to investigate cerebral activity during glossolalia using SPECT imaging. Results showed significant decreases in prefrontal cortices and left caudate and increases in the left superior parietal lobe and right amygdala during glossolalia compared to singing.

Interestingly enough, between the two studies by Newberg et al., there is a counter effect on the activation of the frontal lobe. In Newburg's study on meditation using SPECT, there was a significant increase in activation, whereas in states of glossolalia, there was reduced activation. The reduced blood flow in the frontal lobes observed during glossolalia aligns with the subjects' reported experience of lacking intentional control over their glossolalic utterances. This is an interesting aspect of this research because trance states in the Nechung oracle can be observed in one of two ways. The first is a meditative state regarded as a state of focus, which would suggest, based on research by Davidson and Newburg, that increased activation in the frontal lobe would imply increased modes of concentration and decreased amygdala activity for reduced emotional reactivity. Inversely, based on the research of Rogerson et al. and Newburg et al., researchers observe that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) decreases in researched states of trance of religious phenomena. Rogerson's work introduces the idea that a decrease in OFC activation also shares a correlation to the default mode network (DMN), which would indicate an altered state of consciousness. Newburg's study of glossolalia connects the decrease of perfusion in the frontal lobe to the subject's shared experience of a "lack of internal control" when performing. Figure 5 displays the organization of the comparative data observed in the four studies. 

Antoine Lutz and Richard Davidson et al., “Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation”	Newburg et al.,  “The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during glossolalia: A preliminary  SPECT study”	Newburg et al.,  "The Measurement of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow during the Complex Cognitive Task of Meditation: A Preliminary SPECT Study	Rogerson et al.,  "Neural Correlates of a Trance Process and Alternative States of Consciousness in a Traditional Healer."
Expert meditators exhibited less activation in the amygdala in response to emotional sounds, indicating reduced emotional reactivity.	The results indicated decreases in prefrontal cortices and the left caudate, alongside increases in the left superior parietal lobe and right amygdala during glossolalia compared to singing.	SPECT scans conducted during meditation showed an increase in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in several brain regions, such as the frontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, and thalamus, compared to baseline. The study proposed and confirmed heightened frontal lobe activity, likely indicating enhanced concentration. Additionally, a negative correlation between frontal and parietal lobes activity was identified.	The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) displayed significant changes in BOLD signals during varying levels of trance perception. Particularly, high trance states showed reduced activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN) within the OFC, possibly indicating reciprocal inhibition between the DMN and prefrontal cortex to maintain Ordinary States of Consciousness (OSCs).

Figure 6. A chart outlining the general findings in each of the mentioned studies. 

While the hypothesized cognitive processes during the Oracle's trance state are heavily generalized, the concurrent research discussed offers an opportunity to contemplate various cognitive measures and methodologies for objectively defining a "trance state." Regarding the mentioned theoretical frameworks, it's important to acknowledge the risk of reductionism in creating objective definitions. The studies by Lutz and Davidson provide a significant opportunity to explore meditation's effects on the brain. However, when referencing the experiences of the Nechung Oracle, it's crucial to consider whether the meditation retreats undertaken by these oracles focus on Focused Attention (FA) or Open Monitoring (OM) style meditation. While I compare the impact of meditation on the brain with the amygdala, it's only during meditation that a recorded decrease is noted. Whether the meditation types undertaken by the Oracles can be categorized as FA or OM is debatable and warrants further exploration in future research to clarify the implications of meditation on the brain. Rebecca Rogerson's work with the Sangoma uncovers numerous details about consciousness through the lens of auditory stimuli. However, concerning the relationship to the Nechung Oracle, it's important to consider the value of volition.The Sangoma in this study maintains a sense of volition through auditory stimuli, leading researchers to label her trance state as a “flow state”in which she “calls upon her ancestors.” For the Nechung, there is no definitive term for the trance state in which the medium conducts the trance, and whether it can be categorized as a flow state is unsupported by the lack of control the Nechung shares in his trance state. Although auditory stimuli are present in ordained rituals and community gatherings during invocations, some causes or stimuli do not modulate cases in which receiving the deity is. Therefore, the differences between the Sangoma and Nechung are important considerations in this work. Similarly, Andrew Newburg's study of Glossolalia and SPECT imaging is referenced earlier. Still, there is no direct comparison between the practices of the Pentecostal traditions and the Tibetan Buddhist framework of trance. Thus, these referential studies are potential examples for future studies of cognitive processing in the Oracle's brain. 

The final point of consideration for future applications is the limitation of space and technology. These studies used various brain measurement methods, from electrical stimulation to hemodynamic responses. Since the Nechung Oracle engages in a wide range of movements during his trance state, it would be challenging to consider alternatives for creating accurate measurements unaffected by movement. Despite these challenges and limitations, there is potential for neuroscience to delve deep into the interdisciplinary question of trance using careful methods of defining, measuring, and analyzing these trance states.

4.b.The Tensions between Buddhism and Science

Both collaboration and tension characterize the relationship between Buddhism and science; while both systems share a commitment to empirical inquiry, they also diverge in their approaches to understanding reality. Buddhism emphasizes subjective experience and introspection, while science relies on objective observation and experimentation. This tension arises particularly in areas where Buddhist doctrines, such as rebirth and karma, intersect with some key scientific principles. Despite these differences, there are instances of fruitful dialogue and interdisciplinary research, suggesting that while tensions exist, there is potential for mutual enrichment and understanding between the two.

In her own words, journalist Linda Heuman thoughtfully asks, 

"Is there a way to understand the nature of reality that both validates scientific knowledge and makes sense of the pluralities of cultural and religious experience? If truth were understood to be plural, would that have to mean that anything at all (or nothing at all) would be true? Are there ways to accommodate pluralism that do not lead to relativism or nihilism?"

 Diving head-on into pluralism, philosopher and religious studies professors James W. Haag and Whitney A. Bauman touches on this topic in their paper "De/Constructing Transcendence: The Emergence of Religious Bodies."Considering how the body is an imminent part of the experience and especially the value of the Kuten for the Oracle, the body can be seen as a connection between the transworldly and mundane. The value of experience and the relationship to the body is explained thoroughly in Haag and Bauman's work, exploring the downward reductionist approach, emphasizing dependence and connectedness with the world, and the upward, phenomenological stream of consciousness, which observes an idealist approach. Haag and Bauman contend with this by referencing holism and monism as opposing perspectives on reality. In this section, I emphasize and present science and religion as the monist and holistic stressors, which show up in my work with oracles and mediumship.

Haag and Bauman critique the reductionist approaches found in science that attempt to explain away religious experiences and emphasize the importance of recognizing the complex interplay between physical processes and representational phenomena. They draw on theories of emergence, arguing that religious experiences are emergent features of the cosmos, shaped by the dynamic interactions of biological, social, and cultural factors. It suggests that meaning-making practices are inherently embodied and relational, influencing how individuals navigate their identities and interpret the world around them while advocating for an understanding of human existence that embraces complexity and diversity, rejecting dualistic frameworks that separate mind from body and promoting an inclusive approach to metaphysics that acknowledges the interconnectedness of all beings. Applying Haag and Bauman's approach to examples such as Rebecca Rogerson’s work, the religious experience of trance, categorized as an Altered State of Consciousness (ASC), is viewed as an emergent phenomenon. In this view, the trance experience cannot be reduced to a single cause or effect, such as auditory or visual stimulation. Instead, it is considered a trance only when all contributing factors are present. Moreover, the separation of the body from the brain challenges Haag and Bauman's notion that the body and mind are interconnected in emergence. In the case of the Nechung Oracle, attempting to measure or quantify trance solely based on brain effects and quantifiable body measures may inherently diminish the embodied experience. Linda Heuman poses a similar perspective on whether creating a “respectful forum” that presents Buddhist and scientists as “equal partners” aids in reducing any “hegemonic tendencies, especially in the temptation to reduce the other one's framework,” especially in light of understanding how pluralistic dialogue often requires the recognition of “multiple worlds, different ontologies, metaphysical, and epistemologies– and that means multiple truths”. 

A solution to this form of discussion as presented by Linda Heuman in her work, titled “The Importance of Keeping Differences in Sight in Buddhism's Dialogue with Science and Modernity,” engages and supports the value of tension between Buddhist and scientific dialogue. She engages with the ideas that the implicit assumptions and foundational differences between Buddhism and science are essential in building genuine dialogue. By critiquing the work of bracketing metaphysical assumptions to facilitate dialogue, she argues that addressing the foundational topics and differences between Buddhism and science can be more effective. Pushing against the metaphor of bracketing, drawn from her interpretation of Husserl's phenomenology, Heuman suggests that some of the core assumptions made by both sides are not incidental but integral to the discussion so that implicit assumptions can shape the explicit discussions. When examining implicit assumptions in scientific discussions about religious experiences like Oracle work and mediumship, numerous scientific assumptions are often made to simplify the embodied practice as merely a seizure or a mental illness-related event. While this runs the risk of partaking in the reductionism that Haag and Bauman mentioned early on, it provides an opportunity for researchers to consider some of the limiting beliefs they have on religious phenomenology. Similarly, within the Buddhist framework, implicit assumptions shape the lens through which scientific inquiry is viewed, leading to confirmation bias when data aligns with predetermined beliefs. Heuman highlights Husserl’s phenomenology of bracketing, a method frequently employed in qualitative research to mitigate the potentially negative effects of preconceptions that might sway one's interpretation. However, in Buddhist practice, there is a tendency to emphasize holism, overlooking the objective nature of evidence and reasoning in science. In the same way, Buddhism can engage in acknowledging the implicit assumptions found in its traditions and interactions with science. Together, both frameworks push foundational disparities between Buddhism and science to foster genuine dialogue and confront limiting beliefs, advocating for a nuanced approach that embraces the complexities of both traditions.